CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the writer discusses about: 1) Definition of key term, 2) The relevant study and 3) The theoretical framework.

2.1  Definition of Key Terms

In order to avoid misunderstanding in the side of the reader, it is consider important to define some terms concerning with this research. Besides, it is also arm at clarifying the inside idea of the terms at least on the view of the Writer. The terms are as follows:

2.1.1        Effectiveness

Effectiveness is a noun and the verb word is effective. The word effective according to Oxford Advance Learners dictionary is “producing the result that is wanted or intended producing a successful result”. Oxford University Press (2000:402)

2.1.2        Textbook

Textbooks are a standard book/book any particular branch of study and may consist of two types: basic books main and supplement additional (lange inTarin,1986:11). Bacon (in Tarin,1986:11) says that a textbook is a book designed for use in the classroom, with Cemat compiled and prepared by an expert or experts in the field and equipped with means of appropriate teaching and harmonious.

2.1.3        Reading

Reading is the skill or activity of getting information from books or the way in which you understand something (Cambridge advance learner’s dictionary: 2008)

2.1.4        Comprehension

Comprehension is the ability to understand completely and be familiar with a situation, facts (Cambridge advance learner’s dictionary: 2008)

2.2  The Theoretical Framework

Reading is a form of communication between reader and the author. In the process of reading, a reader has to understand and catch the meaning of the text. At the same time, the author gives understanding through the words. The essence of reading activity is comprehension; it becomes a primary challenge in teaching or learning of reading skill. In order to learn or understand the message of the author, the students are hoped to have the ability to comprehend the written textbook. As Pamela J. Farris said that reading comprehension is the process of understanding the message that the author tries to convey. (2004:321)

2.2.1        Reading

Reading is “a skill of great importance to student because it provides him to access to great quantity of further experience of the language and gives him a window into the normal means of continuing his personal education”. Peter Steven (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997:26)

Reading is regarded as one of English skills that need relatively mechanical skills. In this sense, Elizabeth B. Bernhardt (1991:5) assumed that reading is viewed as not merely taking written information on the printed matter but also attributing a meaning-extracting process as the essence of the act of reading. It means that reading is not only to get information from the text passively but also to process it on mind to understand the meaning. That assumption is in line with a linguist expert, Dorothy Rubin who defined that reading as the conveying of meaning to and the processing the printed word symbols to decode the words and to know the meaning of the selections. (New York: CBS, 1982:8).

Regarding those definitions above, it can be seen that learning to read is a complex process because reading requires thinking. When the reader read to get the meaning the printed selection, it is obviously needed a great number of mechanical skills and comprehension skills as thinking process. Therefore, it can be said that reading includes many aspects of skills.

divided those skills involves recalling, drawing, finding, weaving, recognizing, identifying, and following which are considered toward the readers in understanding the printed symbols as a mental process. J. Charles Alderson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000:9-10). That is why the readers have to integrate their skills when reading text because as a complex process, reading needs understanding the information on mind.

Jo Ann Aebersold also stated in her book that “Reading is the ability to comprehend the thoughts and feelings of another mind via the medium of text; reading constitutes a powerful activity that confers knowledge, insight, and perspective readers”. (1997:5-6).

According to Elizabeth B. Bernhardt, reading is regarded as a cognitive process in which demands a process to apprehend the meaning, to gain information, and to learn in which those should be considered to the process of mind. (1991:5). Therefore, to understand the meaning of a text in reading activity, the reader have to use of interaction among eyes and mind to grasp the message related to what the author is trying communicate.

However, according to Peter David Fumprey in his book stated, “Reading is more than ability to understand the explicit meaning of the passage presented. It is an essence, a constructive thinking process which includes comprehension of explicit and implicit meaning. It involves application, analysis evaluation and imagination. It is one activity through which the child’s cognitive can further”. (1997:2)

Based on those statements above, clearly, reading is a complex process in getting meaning or in understanding the message. It is commonly what we call as reading comprehension. It is in line with Zemelman Daniel and Hyde Samuels who stated that “the actively understanding of the message to construct the meaning concerning the transaction between what the author trying to convey through his words and the mind of a reader is called reading comprehension”. (1998:30).

In short, there is an interaction between a reader and an author. The result of this interaction, the reader tries to understand what the author means. While reading, a reader tries to understand the information from the text they read. Understanding a written text means extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible. (1996:3). Therefore, there is no meaning if a reader just reads without comprehending and catching the information from it.

Jo Mc Donough quoted from Devine who said that, “Reading comprehension is the process of using syntactic, semantic, and theoretical information found in the printed text to reconstruct in the reader mind.” (1993:101-102).

Comparison with the definition of Devine, William Grabe said that, “Reading comprehension is most likely a simple multiplication of word recognition abilities and general language comprehension abilities.” (1985:5).

However, in comprehending a printed language, it is quite difficult as the reader must accomplish multiple things simultaneously in constructing the meaning from a text. There is a construction of understanding concept. The reader has to construct their own understanding about the text they read. As Penny Ur stated;

Our aims in (real-life) reading usually go beyond mere understanding. We may wish to understand something in order to learn from it (in course of study), in order to find out how to act (instruction, directions), in order to express an opinion about it (letter requesting advice), or for many other purpose. Other pieces of writing, into which the writer has invested thought and care, demand a personal response from the reader to the ideas in the text, such as interpretation, application to other contexts, criticism, or evaluation. (1996:150).

Based on these opinions, it could be summarized that reading is an activity which need a use of eyes in mind together at same time to get the information of a reading object. The comprehension is process to in getting the information. The writer concludes that the reading comprehension is a process to understand the contents of the text which is done by the readers to get information. It is given through written language and aimed to comprehend the meaning of the text.

So, reading is one of the linguistic skills that people should have in order to communicate in English fluently and it is important to understand information from the text and interpret its meaning.          

2.3  Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and understand its meaning. An individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their traits and skills, one of which is the ability to make inferences. If word recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read.

Nunan says: “It is important to bear in mind that reading is not an invariant skill, that there are different types of reading skills that correspond to the many different purposes we have for reading” (1989:33).

So, in the classroom, in students’ reading activities, the writer is sure that they have many purposes, among others are to graduate from their school and to provide themselves with the knowledge to continue their studies whatever their purposes are. In order to achieve the goal, the comprehension ability in reading is needed.

The concept of reading comprehension could be bottom-up and top-down approaches. Nunan (1989:33) mentions that with the bottom-up approach, the reading is viewed as a process of decoding written symbols, working from smaller units (individual letter) to larger ones (words, clauses and sentences).

According to Olson and Diller (1982:42), what is meant by reading comprehension is a term used to identify those skills needed to understand and apply information contained in a written material.

This statement is supported by Harris and Sipay (1980:179), who say that reading comprehension ability is taught to be a set of generalized knowledge acquisition skills that permits people to acquire and exhibit information gained as a consequence of reading printed language.

2.4  Textbook

2.4.1        Definition of English textbook

Textbooks are a learning tool that is commonly used in schools and colleges to support a teaching program, for example: using the textbooks used in the Junior High Schools at Aikmel

There are many definitions of “reading” presented by the experts. However, there must not be the worthiest sense. One of the definitions is implied by Daniel Hittlemen, (quoted in Dallmann, Rouch, Char, & DeBoer, 1982: 23)

“Reading is verbal process interrelated with thinking and with all other communication abilities-listening, speaking, and writing, specifically, reading is a process of reconstructing from the printed patterns on the page ideas and information intended by the author.”

Moreover, Heilman, Blair, & Rupley (1981: 2) argue that the reading can be defined as a thinking   process   and   it   can   be   a communicative skill. They also define the reading is an interacting process with the language in the printed page. This printed page should be understood and the reader should be able to express in oral form.  In the short sentence, they defines that reading is a language process. However, basically the nature of reading is difficult to be defined as in the process of reading exactly. This can be pointed out in many views.

Reading as the process of giving the significance it ended by the writer  to  graphic  symbols  by  relating  them  to  one’s  own  find  of experience (Dechant, 1970: p.19 ). Reading is thus perceived as a two folds process: identification of the symbols, and association of appropriate meaning with them. Reading requires identification and comprehension.

A medium is a means to help the teachers when the teaching and learning activities progress. A teacher usually uses some media to make him or her easier in explaining the teaching materials. One media which is ordinarily used is a textbook. The textbook is easy to buy, to carry, and to study. Even though there are so many kinds of media rivaling the printed materials of communication, the textbook remains the major source in school.

Based on the definitions above, it is important for teachers to use a textbook when they teach a particular subject in order to help them when they conduct teaching and learning activities as well is to reach educational purposes.

2.4.2        The Functional of Textbook

A textbook has many functions. According to Thomson, the textbook has many functions as follows:

2.4.2.1  Individualization of instruction

A textbook helps students to individualize instruction by enabling them to proceed at their own rate and to a limited extent, according to what they are interested in studying.

2.4.2.2  Organization of instruction

A textbook helps students to organize instruction by providing experiences, suggested activities, recommended reading and question. Written textbook give unity to classroom interaction and are graded to introduce new concepts or contents they build upon what has preceded.

2.4.2.3  Tutorial Contribution

A teacher often uses the textbook to help students learn how to read better, to study, to weigh evidence, and to solve problems.

2.4.2.4  Improvement of Teaching

Textbook is also regarded as a helpful utility which is used by teachers to improve their skills in teaching.

From the explanation above, textbook is a kind of visual aid in teaching learning process. It means that the function of a textbook is actually as one of the visual aids by teachers, when they are teach and explain the teaching materials. Besides, it also helps students getting a better understanding of the material giving by the teacher.

2.5  Effectiveness

Effectiveness is a noun and the verb word is effective. The word effective according to Oxford Advance Learners dictionary is “producing the result that is wanted or intended producing a successful result”. Oxford University Press (2000:403).

The word effective sometimes use in a quantitative way, become being very or not much effective. It does not inform on the direction (positive or negative) and the comparison to a standard of the given effect. Efficacy, on the other hand, is the ability to produce a desired amount of the desired effect, or success in achieving a given goal. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia.

Effectiveness according Ravianto, (1989:113) definition of effectiveness is how well the job is done, the extent to which people produce the out put as expected. This means that if a job can be completed with the planning, both in time, cost and quality, it can be said to be effective. Ndraha (2005: 163) is used to measure the efficiency of the process, in order to measure the effectiveness of the success of achieving the goal". Thesis desertasi. 2010. Theory Effectivitas. Tesis disertasi (online) (http://tesisdisertasi.blogspot.com/2010/10/teori-efektivitas.html retrieved, 26^th October 2014)